Cross border investigation and prosecution of bribery and corruption
Abstract:The paper will consider the investigation and prosecution of cross border corruption and bribery from a Scottish and EU perspective. It will consider more widely and fully the investigative powers available in such cases including the use of international mutual legal assistance instruments, as well as extradition. Moreover, it will consider the absence of common minimum standards and rules for the admissibility and recovery of evidence, including the oral evidence of witnesses outwith the jurisdiction which exercises criminal jurisdiction and further consider mechanisms to determine jurisdiction to ameliorate the current absence of common rules. The paper will also highlight European experience with the concept of mutual recognition as a cornerstone of judicial cooperation and the wider international instruments in the field of mutual legal assistance in cross border cases.
Keywords:Corruption UK Bribery Act 2010 Recovery of evidence Mutual recognition Extradition Mutual legal assistance Future initiatives
1 Corruption: international impact
“Corruption hellip;undermines democracy and the rule of law, leads to violations of human rights, distorts markets, erodes the quality of life and allows organised crime, terrorism and other threats to human security to flourish hellip;corruption hurts the poor disproportionately by diverting funds intended for development, undermining a governments ability to provide basic services, feeding inequality and injustice and discouraging foreign aid investment” Kofi Annan.
2 Identifying corruption
Within Scotland, the Serious Organised Crime Division of the Crown Office has holistic responsibility, through its various teams of specialist prosecutors, for the investigation and prosecution of such criminality, including the recovery of the proceeds of crime, whether established as the result of a criminal conviction or non-conviction based asset seizure. Within this structure, the international cooperation unit seeks the recovery of evidence believed to be outwith the United Kingdom, encourages participation with law enforcement and prosecutors overseas in Joint Investigation Teams, while maximising the benefits offered by EU agencies such as Eurojust or the European Judicial Network.
The Serious Fraud Office has jurisdiction within England and Wales in relation to the investigation and prosecution of inter alia bribery and corruption.
The SFO has identified the difficulty in detecting serious criminal conduct that is bribery or corruption, given the secretive manner in which it is conducted and that the agreement to gain an unfair advantage is often retained between a close number of individuals whether acting in their own interest or acting in their capacity as employees of a company. Bribery and corruption in this latter category can be particularly difficult to identify and investigate, given payments can be routed through a number of companies in various jurisdictions. It is important to acknowledge that two additional aspects which will not be explored in this paper, namely the important role played by professionals in these schemes, whether lawyers, accountants and bankers and, sadly, the perception of judicial corruption which by denying the accused a fair trial also results in public interest in the prosecution of individuals or companies also being denied.
The SFO has identified “corruption indicators” which, while not exhaustive, includes:
- abnormal cash payments
- pressure exerted for payments to be made urgently or ahead of schedule
- payments being made through a third party country—for example, goods or services supplied to country lsquo;Arsquo; but payment is being made, usually to a shell company, in country lsquo;Brsquo;
- an abnormally high commission percentage being paid to a particular agency. This may be split into two accounts for the same agent, often in different jurisdictions
- private meetings with public contractors or companies hoping to tender for contracts
- lavish gifts being received
- an individual who never takes time off even if ill, or holidays, or insists on dealing with specific contractors himself or herself
- making unexpected or illogical decisions accepting projects or contracts
- the unusually smooth process of cases where an individual does not have the expected level of knowledge or expertise
- abuse of the decision process or delegated powers in specific cases
3 European instruments establishing a framework for corruption and bribery offences
3.1 Council decision on contact point network against corruption
This network was established in consequence of agreement in the Hague Programme of measures.
The network aims to “improve cooperation between authorities and agencies to prevent and combat corruption” through the establishment of a network of experts, with Europol, Eurojust and the European Commission being fully engaged.
The network is tasked with constituting a “forum for the exchange throughout the EU of information on effective measures and experience in the prevention and combatting of corruption.”
3.2 Council framework decision on combating corruption in the private sector
This decision aimed to ensure that both passive and active corruption in the private sector was criminalised in all EU Member States including legal persons. The offences were to incur “effective, proportionate and dissuasive penalties.”
3.3 Council of Europe criminal law convention on corruption
This convention was particularly notable for establishing the Group of States against corruption (GRECO).
4 United Kingdom domestic legislation
4.1 The Bribery Act 2010
4.1.1 Background
In 1995, The Nolan Committee on Standards in Public Life published a report (Cm 2
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贪污贿赂犯罪的跨国界调查与检控
摘要:本文将从一个苏格兰和欧盟的角度出发,对跨国贪污贿赂的调查与起诉进行思考。在这种情况下,它将更广泛和充分的考虑侦查权,包括使用国际司法协助文书,以及引渡。此外,它将考虑恢复证据的可采性共同的最低标准和规则的缺失,包括证人的口头证据和刑事管辖权的管辖权行使以及进一步审议机制,以确定管辖权,以改善目前的情况下的共同规则。本文还将突出欧洲的经验,作为司法合作的基石,相互承认的概念以及跨境案件司法协助领域的国际文书。
关键词:英国贪污贿赂行为,2010回收的相互承认的证据,引渡互助法律援助未来倡议
1 腐败:国际影响
“腐败hellip;破坏民主与法治,导致侵犯人权,扭曲了市场,压低了生活质量,允许有组织犯罪、恐怖主义和其他威胁人类的因素蓬勃发展,腐败对穷人造成了严重的伤害,这对发展造成了严重的影响,削弱了政府提供基本服务的能力,喂养不平等和不公正以及令人沮丧对外援助投资”科菲安南。
2 腐败的识别
在苏格兰,严重有组织犯罪的官方部门有整体的责任,通过各种团队专业的检察官,对于这样的犯罪行为进行调查和起诉,包括犯罪所得的回收,无论是建立基于资产扣押的刑事定罪或非定罪的结果。在这种结构,国际合作单位寻找证据的恢复被认为是在英国之外,鼓励参加海外联合调查组的执法人员和检察官,同时,将由欧盟机构如欧盟或欧洲司法网提供的福利最大化。
严重欺诈办公室在英格兰和威尔士在调查和起诉除其他外的贿赂和腐败方面有管辖权。
SFO确定严重的犯罪行为即贿赂和腐败是有困难的。鉴于它是以秘密的方式进行,并且获得不公平的利益的协议往往被保留在一个密切的个人之间,无论是作为自己的利益或作为一个公司的雇员的能力。这一类的贿赂和腐败特别难以被确定和调查,给定的付款可以通过在不同的司法管辖区的一些公司。重要的是要认识到,这两个额外的方面将不在本文中探讨,即律师、会计师和银行家们在这些方案中扮演的重要角色。可悲的是,对司法腐败的认识,通过否定被告的公正审判,也导致了对检察机关个人或公司的公开利益的剥夺。
证券及期货条例已确定“腐败指标”,而不是详尽的,包括:
- 异常现金支付
- 迫切需要或者提前支付的压力
- 通过第三方国家支付的款项——例如,提供给A国的货物或服务,但通常是在B国建立一个子公司进行付款
- 向特定机构支付的不正常的佣金百分比。这可能是分为在不同司法管辖权的相同代理人的2个账户
- 与公共承包商或公司的私人会议,或者希望投标合同
- 收到的慷慨的礼物
- 即使不需要时间,也不需要休息,或是假期,或坚持处理特定的个人
- 做出不合理的或不合逻辑的决定,接受项目或合同
- 在不寻常的平稳过程的情况下,个人没有预期的知识或专业知识
- 在特定情况下滥用决策过程或委派的权力
3 欧洲文书建立贪污贿赂犯罪的框架
3.1 关于打击腐败的网络委员会的决定
这一网站是在海牙方案的协议中建立的。
该网站的目的是“提高政府和机构之间的合作,预防和打击腐败”。通过建立专家网络与欧洲刑警组织,欧盟和欧洲委员会正在全力的投入其中。
网站的任务是制定一个“对于有效的措施,在预防和打击腐败的经验信息欧盟交流论坛”。
3.2理事会关于打击私营部门腐败问题的框架决定
这个决定旨在确保包括法人在内的欧盟所有成员无论是私营部门的被动还是主动腐败都是刑事犯罪。罪行承担“有效、适度和劝诫”处罚。
3.3欧洲委员会关于腐败的刑法公约
本公约特别值得注意的是,建立国家反腐败集团(GRECO)。
4 英国国内立法
4.1 受贿行为2010
4.1.1 背景
1995年,诺兰公共生活标准委员会发表了一份报告(厘米2850i),暗示英国法律委员会,一个带有对法律改革和回顾,考虑法律对于受贿罪的合并,它没有在其报告提出“立法的刑法:腐败”。当时的英国政府在2000年6月公布了一个白色文件,使得其下面的一个政府工作组于2003年出版腐败法案初稿。议会的联合委员会的力量被认为是在该机构对犯罪批评保留的代理/主关系的基础。政府进行进一步磋商,这导致了该问题被提交给法律委员会,在进一步协商后,产生了进一步的报告。这份报告反过来又导致2009年3月贿赂法案草案公布。
2010贿赂行为在2010年4月8号获得批准,并在进入2011年7月1号进入英国(苏格兰法)。
4.1.2罪行
这项立法的主要变化是要取代以前对代理人/主要关系的刑事行为的法律,“有利于一个基于意图的模型诱导不正当行为”。
一经定罪,公司将面临无限的罚款,并且个人将被判处最高十年的有期徒刑。
由此可以看出,特别是在商业世界,大部分的调查将集中在跨境犯罪行为。是否通过要约和接受贿赂或要约或者请求被一个人在外国实体内以获得不公平的商业利益而获得的利益,或者该行为定义为违反相关的预期功能或活动的不当行为。为此,值得注意的是预防犯罪,对失败的商业组织采取适当步骤,以防止那些与商业机构相关n贿赂别人获得或保留业务的组织或获得或保留的组织优势。
鉴于重大影响定罪能对一个商业组织的商业和声誉产生影响,在苏格兰,主主在商业组织的自我报告上发表了指导意见,其目的是鼓励“良好的公司治理,创造一个企业文化,而不是隐藏的贿赂。”这一指导是有效的,直到2014年6月30号。为有效果,商业组织必须除其他外,充分披露有关违规和损害造成的性质和严重性,不道德行为的程度以及在公司内部发生的行为。在所有情况下,刑事调查和检控可能不会发生,而是通过民事回收股,使非定罪为基础的资产检取。
4.1.3管辖权达到2010的受贿行为
英国和苏格兰设立了四项刑事司法管辖权,即受贿罪所抓获的犯罪行为,主动和被动的贿赂,商业贿赂和商业组织未能防止个人贿赂。
这些基础的后者提供了普遍管辖权的商业组织已经成立或是一个机构在联合王国,并进行业务或任何部分英国的企业。因此,有人建议,在美国注册成立的商业组织,这是受美国的外国腐败行为法,并有一个附属公司在英国联邦,可能会发现自己的调查未能阻止对我们公司贿赂别人在管辖范围内行事代表在英国和美国的起诉主体。
5 在调查和检控中回收的证据的欧洲措施:相互承认原则
司法判决的相互承认原则是欧盟司法合作的基石。它规定,执行当局必须承认并对欧洲联盟的其他成员国的司法机关发出的命令产生效力。这一原则来源于欧盟内部的自由流动,在自由、安全和正义领域,它反映了人们在欧盟内部自由流动的要求,其中一个可以从瑞典北部到南部的葡萄牙或从加莱到罗马尼亚的欧洲东部边界,没有出示护照或越过边境,也要求司法裁决是公认的,并给予效果,并在会员国是互不可执行的,并且不需要正式的。
它在上下文中已经成为欧洲逮捕令(EAW)最成功的案例,其中删除了欧洲联盟成员国之间的引渡方案,取而代之的是“司法机关自首制度hellip;一个新的简化系统的被判刑或涉嫌犯罪的刑罚执行或起诉的目的,使它可以删除的复杂性目前引渡程序中所固有的潜在的延迟。在犯罪问题上,传统的合作关系已经占到了成员国之间的关系,而应该被一个自由运动的制度所取代,这一制度涵盖了前硒句话,最后决定,自由区内,安全和正义。”
它已经在回收的证据和搜索和扣押的资产。
6 引渡:欧洲逮捕令
欧洲逮捕令是由欧洲通缉令和成员国之间的移交程序决定的。
它已在欧洲联盟各成员国执行。所有成员国已经制定了国内立法的框架决定的影响。这是在联合王国通过引渡法案2003。
欧洲逮捕令是以逮捕和被请求的人另一个成员国交出成员国出台的司法决定,对实施犯罪的目的最终起诉或执行的监禁或拘留令。
7 司法合作
7.1 欧洲公约在刑事事项互助(Strasbourg,20。iv.1959)提供
7.2冻结令
冻结令框架决定,如欧洲逮捕令,根据相互承认的原则。
它还包括了框架清单罪行。这意味着,如果法官或检察官发出冻结令,它必须有执行国家的效果,并且如果是与腐败调查证据的发布,将有没有要求执行措施适用双重犯罪。
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