自由贸易中的绿色壁垒外文翻译资料

 2023-01-11 10:01

自由贸易中的绿色壁垒

在最新一轮世贸组织委员会关于农业谈判的尾声,一些谈判人员乐观地认为,谈判会在截止日期即3月31日前制定系列的目标、公式及其他“方式”,这将使得国家能在几乎快要消失的新一轮贸易谈判中兑现他们的的自由化承诺。这一目标之所以如此重要,其原因有二:一是在农业领域达成一致是相当困难的,这点变得越来越清楚,在乌拉圭回合谈判中已得到充分证明。农业谈判进程对于证明“新多哈回合谈判对贸易是有用的、可行的”这一论断的不可信性具有关键的作用。第二,多哈宣言使农业谈判成为“单一承诺”一部分的事项必须在2005年1月1日前完成,即必须制定一个“全有或全无”的方案,在这个方案中所有国家都必须在新一轮谈判达成所有领域的协议中达到要求并受约束。这就意味着如果农业方面的协议不能完成,将无法改变多边贸易体制管理行业,服务或相关领域,并且不能在新领域取得进步,如竞争策略、外国投资和公共采购,而所有这些都对发达国家的经济议程至关重要。

使这次农业的坚持的因素是多方面的。由于在最后一轮,有一点是一致的贸易体制中的农业发达国家的全球自己在适当的形状。农产品出口有很大的差异在议程中的美国,凯恩斯集团和欧盟国家内部的发展。当富人和强大的反对,一个全球性的共识是不容易找到的。

在这轮谈判中,情况可能会变得更加复杂,因为许多发展中国家包括古巴、智利、肯尼亚、印度、尼日利亚、巴基斯坦、斯里兰卡、乌干达和津巴布韦在谈判中采取了非常积极的作用,经常发表一些明显不同于三大巨头的观点。不同国家团体的分歧程度可以从Stuart WTO农业委员会的主席Harbinson最近写的的一篇论文中加以判断。该文是基于在新一轮农业谈判中提交的国家提案和多哈部长级会议后世贸组织成员之间进行的的后续磋商。本文的目的是总结磋商的主要特性和结果,并为努力建立进一步的承诺提供一个基础。本文表明,不仅在参与者之间有关进一步谈判的基本立场仍然存在鸿沟,而且成员国之间的野心也存在显著差异。未来农业谈判更令人担忧的是,即使在最近一轮会谈中,各国还没有表示任何和解的倾向。据《国际贸易日报》的报道,Harbinson指出谈判组会话在2003年1月22-24日期间举行,会议旨在反对阵营之间搭建桥梁并促进WTO谈判成员在最后期限3月31日前完成谈判。然而,他补充说,“我们在调解方面取得的进展很小”。预计,由于成员国未能修补他们的差异,农业谈判的方法框架的初稿将将会被迫敲定并在2月14 – 16日东京mini-Ministerial前传开。从目前的进展来看,在最后期限3月31日内定下最终的模式几乎是不可能的。

但这还不是全部。即使协议被缝了贫富之间的国家,通过演习,如布莱尔大厦协议,得到了世界各地的去沿着这将是更加困难的时间。这是因为协议开始对农业(农业协定的成果)在农产品贸易领域实施以来,乌拉圭回合(乌拉圭回合的状况远远没有达到人们的期望)。在本回合过程中,乌拉圭回合谈判的倡议者承诺进行全球生产调整,这将增加世界农业贸易价值和提高发展中国家分享这一贸易的规模。如图1所示,全球产量自1994年乌拉圭回合开始实施以来持续上升,只有在2000和2001年出现逐渐减少的迹象。众所周知,这种产量增加的现象同样也出现在发达国家。

图1

因此,世界贸易额持续上升毫不奇怪,以及1994年后(图2)。真正的转变发生在这之后,1993年和1995年之间的一些浮力,随后有所下降,特别是1997年后,农产品价格急剧。正是这种单位价值下降的情况下,在世界贸易额的停滞,然后在1995年以后,当乌拉圭回合开始实施下降的结果。如表1所示,有一个在全球农业贸易的增长之间的80年代和90年代后半率急剧下降随着增长,特别是由于20世纪90年代下降表现不佳,在1998至2001年时期。价格下降和在乌拉圭回合农业协议后农产品贸易值分别陪同下,部分停滞的世界农产品贸易的影响,坚持区域化。这种区域化灶32和11被占全球农业内部的西欧和亚洲内部贸易分别贸易(图3)的百分之西欧和亚洲。但是值得注意的是,农产品出口在北美和西欧(除拉丁美洲和非洲)贸易的主要产品中所占的比重远远高于亚洲。因此尽管是世界上的发达地区,农业生产及其出口对北美和西欧的经济动态的影响还是很重要的。

图2

表1

图3

因此欧洲热衷于维持其通过保护农业部门,而美国是热衷于扩大自己的农民进行补贴,并迫使其他国家开放其市场,其在世界农产品市场的作用,这并不奇怪。问题是相比于欧盟大市场,美国一直都在开发发展中国家市场方面更成功一些。因此,2001年北美1040亿美元的出口额中,有340亿美元归于亚洲,150亿美元归于拉丁美洲,而出口到欧洲的总额只有140亿美元(表2)。

表2

出口国(包括阿根廷,澳大利亚,玻利维亚,巴西,加拿大,智利,哥伦比亚,哥斯达黎加,危地马拉,印度尼西亚,马来西亚,新西兰,巴拉圭,菲律宾,南非,泰国和乌拉圭等)的凯恩斯集团,至少其中部分国家的农产品出口极为重要,希望世界市场放开保护措施以及庞大的盈余,获得在美国和欧盟支持的结果。我们必须指出,美元的63美元,出口350亿亿来自拉丁美洲前往美国和欧盟。因此,进一步开放市场,减少目的地的国内支持对这些地区至关重要。

从图4中可以很清楚看到这一事实,欧洲一直保持与一个共同的农业政策支持和帮助,无论它的农业生产者的补贴,这表明内欧共体贸易的占百分之74的农业空间,明确努力成功的事实在1990年欧盟的出口,继续占欧盟总出口总额在1995年和2001年的百分之七十三。但是北美,在其折叠国家少得多,也比较封闭。接近三分之一的北美出口是本洲跨区域完成的,乌拉圭回合农业协定以来几乎没有改变。

图4

WTO秘书处2000年发表的论文称,就发展中国家而言,发展中国家的农产品出口扩张速度比发达国家的“后WTO时代”更快。然而,本文提出的数据显示,1994年到1998年期间发展中国家在全球农产品的出口份额只增加了1% (表3)。这个最小的增加有悖于超过75%的世贸组织成员国来自发展中国家已及大量发展中国家的对外贸易主要是农产品这一事实。然而,这些国家占不到50%的全球农业贸易,甚至经过5年的协议的实施对农业形势仍然几乎不变。其次,本文还提到“发展中国家”进口市场(和在某些情况下转型经济体)正变得越来越重要,因为来自发展中国家的农产品出口”。这一方面表明发展中国家逐步开放农业部门,但另一方面,它也意味着农业协议尚未帮助发展中国家获得增加发达国家的市场准入。

表3

AOA协议失败的三重原因已被广泛接受:首先,当有迹象表明乌拉圭回合谈判处于动荡之中时,为了推动一项协议的通过,推动发达国家农产品贸易自由化并没有达到;其次,是能够使用“漏洞“,特别是界定绿,蓝箱措施明确不当的的农产品协议,在这种支持是对非贸易的扭曲的情况下继续支持和保护农民;最后,甚至是宽松乌拉圭回合规则,在执行过程中还有违规,一直在该协议未能确保透明度的实现。
一些国家,特别是出口国的凯恩斯集团,雄心勃勃地提出农业领域的自由化议程毫不奇怪。采用“瑞士公式”关税要大幅度减少,这将确保一国的关税削减比例更大,当时的固定关税或适用于该国的关税更高。这个公式等于,乘数乘以关税率数值然后除以乘数与关税率数值之和。凯恩斯集团提出,对于发达国家这个乘数是25。因此,一个国家的关税税率100%特定产品会降低到20% (2500/125),而一个国家75%的税率将会减少,相应减少18.75%(1875/100)。此外,为了符合特殊和差别待遇的要求,对于发展中国家这个乘数提议是50,这使他们需求减少规模小得多,分别为33.3%(关税率100%时)和30%(关税率75%)。

除了降低关税,凯恩斯集团还呼吁通过降低关税来增强特定商品进口的最低水平(关税税率配额),他们主张大幅削减总支持,可以使用不允许支持这一措施,赞同在乌拉圭回合取消所谓的蓝箱措施来平息欧盟国家,并建议用严格的准则来评估特定的支持措施是否属于完全容许绿色框的规定。

尽管有这些雄心勃勃的要求,但很明显,协议框架在3月31日这个最后期限实现是不太可能的。大约1月22 - 24的时候会议的农业谈判,欧盟农业委员会委员弗朗兹·费舍尔明确表示,3月底的最后期限将会被错过。费舍尔据报道宣称,在多哈设定3月31日为最后期限是农业谈判集团董事长提出他的建议的形式,但这并不意味着第二天世贸组织的所有成员将自动同意这个建议。在任何情况下,讨论欧盟的共同农业政策改革将持续到夏季, 在谈判过程中欧盟还没有一个能决定拍板的。因此,3月31日的最后期限不能满足。

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The green barrier to free trade

C. P. Chandrasekhar, Jayati Ghosh

Feb. 8th, 2003

At the end of the latest round of meetings of the agricultural negotiations Committee of the WTO, the optimism that negotiators would meet the March 31 deadline for working out numerical targets, formulas and other modalities' through which countries can frame their liberalization commitments in a new full-fledged round of trade negotiations has almost disappeared. That target was important for two reasons. First, it is now becoming clear, that even more than was true during the Uruguay Round, forging an agreement in the agricultural area is bound to prove extremely difficult. Progress in the agricultural negotiations was key to persuading the unconvinced that a new Doha Round of trade negotiations is useful and feasible.
Second, the Doha declaration made agricultural negotiations one part of a single undertaking to be completed by January 1, 2005. That is, in a lsquo;take all-or-nothing scheme, countries had to arrive at and be bound by agreements in all areas in which negotiations were to be initiated in the new round. This means that if agreement is not worked out with regard to agriculture, there would be no change in the multilateral trade regime governing industry, services or related areas and no progress in new areas, such as competition policy, foreign investment and public procurement, all of which are crucial to the economic agenda of the developed countries.

The factors making agriculture the sticking point on this occasion are numerous.

As in the last Round, there is little agreement among the developed countries themselves on the appropriate shape of the global agricultural trade regime. There are substantial differences in the agenda of the US, the EU and the developed countries within the Cairns group of agricultural exporters. When the rich and the powerful disagree, a global consensus is not easy to come by.

In this round of negotiation, the complexity of the situation is likely to increase

because a number of developing country including Cuba, Chile, Kenya, India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Uganda and Zimbabwe has taken a very pro-active role in the negotiations and have often expressed views which are significantly different from the views expressed by the big three. The extent of disagreement among different country groups can be gauged from a recent paper by the Chairman of WTO Agriculture Committee Stuart Harbinson. This paper is based on the country proposals submitted during the current round of agricultural negations and the follow up consultations among the WTO Members conducted after Doha ministerial. The objective of this paper is to summarize the main features and results of the consultations and to provide a basis for working towards the establishment of modalities for the further commitments. This paper shows that not only there are still wide gaps in the positions among participants regarding fundamental aspects of the further negotiations but there also exist significant differences in the level of ambition among the member countries. What is even more worrying for the future of the agricultural negotiation is that even the latest round of talks, countries are not showing any inclination towards reconciliation. According to reports published in the International Trade Daily, after a negotiating group session held during 22-24th January 2003, Harbinson noted that the meeting was intended to 'build bridges' between opposing camps and push the WTO talks forward as members head towards their March 31 deadline for finalizing negotiating modalities. Instead, he adds, 'we have made very little headway in building bridges'. It is expected that with members failing to mend their differences, the first draft of a methodology framework for agricultural negotiations will be chair driven and is expected to be circulated before a mini-Ministerial scheduled for Tokyo Feb. 14-16. Given the progress so far, it seems virtually impossible that the March 31st deadline of finalizing the modalities will be met.

But that is not all. Even if an agreement is stitched up between the rich nations,

through manoeuvres such as the Blair House accord, getting the rest of the world to go along would be more difficult this time. This is because the outcomes in the agricultural trade area since the implementation of the Uruguay Round (UR) Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) began have fallen far short of expectations. In the course of Round, advocates of the UR regime had promised global production adjustments that would increase the value of world agricultural trade and an increase in developing country share of such trade.

As Chart 1 shows, global production volumes continued to rise after 1994 when the implementation of the Uruguay Round began, with signs of tapering off only in 2000 and 2001. As is widely known, this increase in production occurred in the developed countries as well.

Chart 1

Not surprisingly, therefore, the volume of world trade continued to rise after 1994 (Chart 2). The real shift occurred in agricultural prices which, after some buoyancy between 1993 and 1995, have declined thereafter, and particularly sharply after 1997. It is this decline in unit values that resulted in a situation where the value of world trade stagnated and then declined after 1995, when the implementation of the Uruguay Round began.

Chart 2

As Table 1 shows, there was a sharp fall in the rate of growth of global agricultural trade between the second half of the 1980s and the 1990s, with the decline in growth in the 1990s being due to the particularly poor performance during the 1998 to 2001 period.

Table 1

Price declines and stagnation in agricultural trade values in the wake of the UR Agreement on Agriculture were accompanied and partly influenced by the persis

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