国家革命:华北地方财政研究,1911-1935外文翻译资料

 2023-01-01 08:01

国家革命:华北地方财政研究,1911-1935

PRASENJIT DUARA(杜赞奇) George Mason University

从二十世纪初开始,中国政府开始了一个似乎与查尔斯蒂利等人称之为国家建设的早期现代欧洲进程相似的发展过程(Tilly 1975)。 国家结构不断扩大的现象突破了社会层面,从属地位,共同选择或破坏当地社区的相对自治的权力结构,以增加其对当地资源的掌控,似乎在帝国晚期重演, 共和国中国。 相似之处包括集权化,官僚化和合理化的冲动; 为军事和民用目的而增加收入的永无止境的动力; 当地社区对这种不可阻挡的入侵和榨取过程的猛烈抵制; 并形成国家和地方精英之间的联盟以巩固其权力(Duara 1983)。

尽管如此,中国在共和时期(1911一199年)制造国家的经验表明,中国国家权力的扩张伴随着地方社会日益无政府状态的发展。 换句话说,鉴于国家控制地方社会的能力并不能完全取决于它从中提取的能力,制定国家是一个概念,只能部分解释这些发展。 我们需要产生一个能够解释在同一结构内同时成功和失败,发展和解体的矛盾的概念。 在这里,我将通过考察中国北方的地方财政来解决这个悖论,并将开发一种我称之为州对合的构造来解释这种特定的国家扩张模式。

国家退化是国家制定过程的变种,其中国家的正式结构与非正式结构同时增长 - 例如纳税农民和雇佣军士兵。 虽然正式的国家依靠非正式结构来履行其许多职能,但它无法扩大对后者的控制。 随着国家以复合模式发展,非正式群体成为当地社会无法控制的力量,取代了许多地方治理的传统安排。 国家退化的概念可能不仅适用于发展中国家的问题,而且如我们将看到的,也可能引起人们对“成功”国家为研究发展中国家所采用的历史模型的局限性的关注。

这项研究也是中国社会史上一个蓬勃发展的趋势的一部分,旨在阐明帝国和共和国后期国家与社会之间复杂的关系。正如菲利普·库恩(Philip Kuhn)和苏珊曼恩·琼斯(Susan Mann Jones,1979)所指出的,从马克思和韦伯开始,一系列范式主宰了国家与社会关系的史学。这些作家和第一代历史学家深受中华帝国浩瀚的影响,他们认为当地社会和地方精英的形式在很大程度上是这种压倒性国家结构的产物。当地社区的权威结构似乎完全由帝国通过考试制度,官僚机构和官方意识形态来控制。

这种范式在20世纪60年代被“士绅社会”范式所取代,这种范式把文人看作是国家与社会之间的中介,一方面拥有国家仆役和另一方面的地方巨人的双重身份。从历史上看,这种范式使得士绅扮演着平衡的角色,在王朝力量时期平衡国家和社会的利益,但指出在王朝衰落时期士绅和地方利益占主导地位。尽管如此,随着本地研究在未来十五年内如雨后春笋般出现,即使这种范式更广泛的解释力在许多方面似乎也不尽人意。

在我看来,目前的趋势旨在批判绅士社会范式,体现了两个早期的倾向。虽然这些倾向并不总是可区分的,但它们具有明显不同的解释性焦点。其中一种我们称之为以精英为中心的观点,强调对旧范式中的士绅和地方社会部分的更复杂的理解。另一方面,以国家为中心的观点则促使人们对国家结构有更深入的了解。

让我们先回顾以精英为中心的观点。 对当地社会的研究表明,士绅 - 社会范式无法在空间上或社会上充分区分精英。 在某些地区,特别是在核心经济领域,国家可能不得不承认精英拥有更多的自主权,而不是在外围地区的精英阶层中做准备(Skinner 1977)。 此外,国家可能更容易受到上层士绅精英阶层的兴趣和压力的影响。 事实上,士绅在他们的利益以及他们与帝国国家本身的认同程度上存在着深刻的分歧。 对士绅 - 社会范式最重要的修正来自研究,这表明精英阶层长期的长期发展会藐视国家士绅关系的平衡和周期性特征。

以国家为中心的对绅士社会范式的批评集中于帝国和共和国后期国家的性质。首先,国家只是通过士绅与当地社区联系在一起。事实上,它经常直接处理各种非生产和非生产团体:商人,农民和边缘群体。绅士制度也不是国家控制和与这些团体沟通的唯一渠道。它利用企业集团,网络以及嵌入流行文化和亲属关系中的各种符号资源。最近,一些学者开发了各种模型来描述国家与社会之间的关系,而这些关系不涉及士绅,甚至不一定是精英作为其制定的核心。这些包括自治主义者,多元主义者,社团主义者,礼拜仪式和经纪模式。所有这些模式都是通过强调国家处理当地社区所采用的多种模式(Eastman 1984; Geisert 1984; Fewsmith 1984; Mann 1984; Schlumberger 1984)来寻求补充,取代或包含绅士社会范式的一部分。 Duara 1983)。

这种以国家为中心的修正主义的第二个方面是,它倾向于强调至少在某些重要方面加强国家直到十九世纪末和二十世纪。正是以这种以国家为中心的论点的这一方面与其双胞胎精英为中心的观点产生了潜在的冲突,直到几年前,这种观点代表了正统立场,认为通过帝国和共和时代末期,国家失去了对当地精英的威力(Wakeman 1975)。粗略地勾画出,在十九世纪中叶大叛乱的后果之中,以国家为中心的修正主义确切地说明了国家强化的开始,正是在其他观点认为其相对于地方精英衰落的开始时(刘1978;库恩1979) 。从那时起,以国家为中心的观点的支持者看到国家权力在民族主义时期的增长(尽管不一定是连续的),而另一种观点则认为精英阶层和其他宗教团体的力量不断增长。

因此,我们所拥有的是一个分裂的图像。我们之前提到的矛盾情况 - 国家力量的扩张和无政府状态的同时增加 - 表现了同样的分裂形象。所需要的是能够对准两个半部的镜头。状态退化的概念尽管属于以国家为中心的视角,但是代表了作为这种透镜的初步努力。它认为使双方重新聚在一起的一个关键因素在于国家本身的结构,特别是在它与本地社会相遇的边界内。

国家的扩张和渗透以及中国在中国领域的扩大发生在一种意识形态的气氛中,即自觉地实现现代化。不仅在国民党时期,而且在激进的军阀时期,各种实践和技术都可以纳入合理化的范畴。然而,合理化只是国家资源扩张的部分原因。到20世纪30年代中期,很明显,国家组织在可能是人均收入停滞的环境中运行的矛盾和压力(叶1979:104)将导致压倒性的扩张模式正如我们将看到的,基本上是传统的,并且是内卷式的。因此,这些扩张模式很可能适合于国家寻求限制作用的某些文化背景,如同传统中国一样,效率本身并不是绝对价值。但是,在现代化意识形态和国家作用的巨大增长的背景下,这些传统模式的再现可能会产生非常严重的社会和政治后果。

国家介入的概念

我调整了克利福德格尔茨的复原概念,克利福德格尔茨最初将其应用于他对爪哇湿田农业的研究(1963)。根据格尔茨的观点,内卷是一种社会或文化模式持续存在的过程,即使它已经达到最终形式,它也不能将自身转变为新模式。在爪哇,通过殖民地和后殖民时期的农业扩张,通过或多或少的不变的规模报酬发生,表现在巴洛克式的现有制度模式中。虽然不会导致人均收入严重下降,但它却抑制了经济增长的可能性(就人均收入而言)。我所说的国家退化是一个过程,就像国家制定一样,即国家在现代社会中扩大其角色。区别于国家制定的是这种扩张发生的方式。我们可以说,国家制定发生在扩张发生在有效的基础上,而在国家退化中,扩张发生根据类似于格尔茨所描述的逻辑程序。我将在税收管理体系中的效率定义如下:当国家的正式结构从纳税人的源头获得所收集的资源的比例越来越高时,系统是有效的。

相反,如果正式的国家结构无法增加从纳税人那里提取的总资源份额(而不是绝对值),那么一个系统效率低下。当国家组织不是通过日益有效地利用现有的或新的投入来扩张时,国家的合并就发生了,这种投入在这种情况下是指人事和其他行政资源,而是通过复制,扩展和阐述遗传模式的国家 - 社会关系。对于中国,我将这种模式描述为经纪模式(Duara,1983)。州经纪人最容易理解的形式是税务农民,他有权收取他为州征收的税款。虽然委员会的比率有时可能会受到调控,但监督其收集的结构通常较弱,税务风扇将通过习俗和讨价还价的能力收集他的所能。在中国帝国,这种国家干预模式不仅适用于税收农业,而且适用于当地社会中几乎所有形式的国家职能。职员,跑步者和其他工作人员的薪水是名义上的(如果有的话),并且有默契的理解,他们会在每次执行国家职能时从公众中抽取一定的“费用”。因此,这些人员组成了一类经纪人,他们负责斡旋政府服务,其收费不是由国家规定,而是由他们的社会力量来管理。

经纪模式的基本原则存在于世界各地,特别是发展中国家,但并非全部。例如在印度,普通人通常需要使用中间人的服务才能接近官僚或完成一些正式业务。通常情况下,中间人是一个专业的经纪人,他的投资和生计来源与他在“办公室”中的联系,他非常谨慎地培养他们。在这样的经纪人占主导地位的社会中,国家不仅损失了经纪人的潜在收入,而且正是因为经纪人需要购买官僚机构(通过贿赂,佣金分享等),国家也放弃了控制很大比例的官僚收入。这种现象的更严重的政治后果是,随着官僚们越来越把注意力转向这些替代性的生计来源,他们自己变成了准经纪人,失去了对国家目标的认同。国家退化高潮在全社会经纪人激增成为国家组织合理化的障碍,现在注定要陷入压抑和破坏当地社会的扩张模式。

外文文献出处:Comparative studies in Society and History. Vo129,No.1, P132-161.

附外文文献原文:

State Involution: A Study of Local Finances in North China, 1911-1935

PRASENJIT DUARA

George Mason University

INTRODUCTION

Beginning around the turn of the twentieth century, the Chinese state launched onto a course of development that seemed to resemble the process in early modern Europe that Charles Tilly and others have called state making (Tilly 1975). The phenomenon of an expanding state structure penetrating levels of society untouched before, subordinating, co-opting, or destroying the relatively autonomous authority structures of local communities in a bid to increase its command of local resources, appeared to be repeating itself in late imperial and republican China. The similarities include the impulse toward centralization, bureaucratization, and rationalization; the insatiable drive to increase revenues for both military and civilian purposes; the violent resistance of local communities to this inexorable process of intrusion and extraction; and the formation of alliances between the state and local elites to consolidate their power (Duara 1983). Nonetheless, a curious paradox is to be found in the Chinese experience of state making through the republican period (1911-49): the expansion of the power of the Chinese state occurs concomitantly with growing anarchy in local society. In other words, given that the ability of the state to control local society does not measure up to its ability to extract from it, state making is a concept that can only partially explain these developments. We need to generate a concept capable of explaining the paradox of simultaneous success and failure, growth and disintegration, within the same structure. Here I will address this paradox by examining local finances in north China and will develop a construct which I call state involution to

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State Involution: A Study of Local Finances in North China, 1911-1935

PRASENJIT DUARA

George Mason University

INTRODUCTION

Beginning around the turn of the twentieth century, the Chinese state launched onto a course of development that seemed to resemble the process in early modern Europe that Charles Tilly and others have called state making (Tilly 1975). The phenomenon of an expanding state structure penetrating levels of society untouched before, subordinating, co-opting, or destroying the relatively autonomous authority structures of local communities in a bid to increase its command of local resources, appeared to be repeating itself in late imperial and republican China. The similarities include the impulse toward centralization, bureaucratization, and rationalization; the insatiable drive to increase revenues for both military and civilian purposes; the violent resistance of local communities to this inexorable process of intrusion and extraction; and the formation of alliances between the state and local elites to consolidate their power (Duara 1983). Nonetheless, a curious paradox is to be found in the Chinese experience of state making through the republican period (1911-49): the expansion of the power of the Chinese state occurs concomitantly with growing anarchy in local society. In other words, given that the ability of the state to control local society does not measure up to its ability to extract from it, state making is a concept that can only partially explain these developments. We need to generate a concept capable of explaining the paradox of simultaneous success and failure, growth and disintegration, within the same structure. Here I will address this paradox by examining local finances in north China and will develop a construct which I call state involution to explain this particular pattern of state expansion. State involution is a variation of the state-making process wherein the formal structures of the state grow simultaneously with informal structures— such as tax farmers and mercenary soldiers. While the formal state is dependent upon the informal structures to carry out many of its functions, it is unable to extend its control over the latter. As the state grows in the involutionary mode, the informal groups become an uncontrollable power in local society, replacing a host of traditional arrangements of local governance. The concept of state involution may be not only applicable to the problems of states in the developing world, but, as we shall see, may also draw attention to the limitations of historical models taken from 'successfully made' states for the study of developing states. This study is also part of a burgeoning trend in Chinese social history that seeks to articulate the complex relationships between state and society in late imperial and republican China. As Philip Kuhn and Susan Mann Jones (1979) have suggested, a succession of paradigms has dominated the historiography of state-society relations, beginning with Marx and Weber. These writers and the first generation of historians, impressed by the immensity of the imperial Chinese state, viewed the forms of local society and local elites largely as outgrowths of this overwhelming state structure. The authority structures of local communities seemed to be entirely controlled by the imperial state through the examination system, the bureaucracy, and official ideology. This paradigm came to be superseded in the 1960s by the 'gentry-society' paradigm that saw the literati as mediators between state and society, possessing a dual identity as state servants on the one hand, and local magnates on the other. Historically sophisticated, this paradigm saw the gentry playing an equilibrating role, balancing the interests of state and society during periods of dynastic strength, but noted the dominance of gentry and local interests during periods of dynastic decline. Nonetheless, as local studies mushroomed during the next decade and a half, even the broader explanatory power of this paradigm appeared to fall short in many respects. It seems to me that the current trend that seeks to critique the gentry-society paradigm embodies two inchoate tendencies. Although these tendencies are not always distinguishable, they have identifiably different interpretive focii. One, which we will call the elite-centered view, emphasises a more complex understanding of the gentry and local society part of the old paradigm. The other, the state-centered view, urges a more thoroughgoing understanding of the structures of the state. Let us review the elite-centered view first. Studies of local society indicate that the gentry-society paradigm did not sufficiently differentiate the elite either spatially or socially. In certain regions and especially in core economic areas, the state may have had to concede much more autonomy to elites than it was prepared to do among elites in peripheral regions (Skinner 1977). Further, the state may have been much more susceptible to the interests and pressures of the higher levels of the gentry elite than to those at the lower end. Indeed, there were profound splits within the gentry in terms of their interests and the extent of their identification with the imperial state itself. The most significant revision of the gentry-society paradigm comes out of research

which suggests that there were long-term secular developments among the elite that would defy the balancing and cyclical character of state-gentry relations. The state-centered critique of the gentry-society paradigm focusses on the nature of the late imperial and republican state. In the first place, the state did not relate to local communities just through the gentry. Indeed, it often dealt directly with a variety of nongentry and nonelite groups: merchants, peasants, and marginal groups. Nor were gentry institutions the only channels through which the state controlled and com

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