2.1. Aging population
Everyone gets older and the population is growing older. This is a fact, which confronts us daily and is often perceived as a threat to the future of our society. In part, this concern is related with the inability of society to adapt to social, organizational and mental developments (Rosa, 2012). The current growth rate of the elderly population is one of the most salient features of recent demographic trends. Many countries are struggling with changing demographics that have consequences at the population level and affect the composition of the workforce and labor skill shortages (Armstrong-Stassen, 2008; Armstrong-Stassen amp; Schlosser, 2011; Schalk et al., 2010). The demographic transition asso- ciated with declining levels of fertility and mortality has been causing unprecedented changes in the age structure of the population worldwide, which means that more than half (55 percent) of the worldrsquo;s governments consider the aging population of their countries as a major concern (UN, 2013).
The Portuguese case is one of the clearest among Euro- pean countries, since the latest census shows two main developments: (1) the number of young people is declin- ing and (2) the number of older people is increasing, i.e., the phenomenon is one of double aging (INE, 2011). The aging index, the number of elderly (65 and over) per 100 young people (0-14 years), in 1960 was 27.0%, in 2012 it was 129.4% and it is expected that in 2060 there will be 307 seniors for every 100 young people (INE, 2014; Pordata, 2014). Therefore, the expected old-age dependency ratio (this indicator is defined as the number of people aged 65 and over, expressed as a percentage of the number of people aged between 15 and 64) in Portugal in 2010, was 26.70%, and in 2050 it is expected to be 55.62% (Eurostat, 2014). These data demonstrate the countryrsquo;s demographic pro- file, characterized by an aging population that results from the decrease in birth rates and the increase in the number of elderly people. This may explain the negative index of the renewal of generations. Consequently, the demographic changes that are now confronting us will also have, in the near future, a great impact on the composition of the work- force.
Despite the differences between countries, most are experiencing demographic changes that have consequences regarding the active population and the composition of the workforce (Schalk et al., 2010; Winkelmaan-Gleed, 2011). In this context, the concerns of governments and organizations (governmental, nongovernmental and intergovernmental) about the need to increase the participation of older workers in the labor market (Streb, Voelpel, amp; Leibold, 2008) should not be ignored. For example, the European Union has set governments, social partners and organizations the objec- tive of increasing the employment rate of older workers, as well as providing access to the skills development that will enable them to grow old while maintaining their health, motivation and capabilities (Naegele amp; Walker, 2006).
2.2. Aging workforce
An aging population means an aging workforce that may lead to a conflict of interests between younger and older workers. In the next few decades, older workers will be forced to play a prominent role in the workforce (Armstrong- Stassen amp; Schlosser, 2011), in order to facilitate economic growth (Posthuma amp; Campion, 2009). Burke and Ng (2006) and Ko ̧cak (2011) reinforce this idea by claiming that both the nature of the globalizing world economy, as well as the aging of the workforce are recognized as two of the most important factors affecting the reality of organizations in many industrialized countries. Moreover, they state that this situation will probably not change in the near future. An aging society faces many challenges involving issues such as: the economy, society, policies and culture. These issues emphasize the impact of aging on national productivity, eco- nomic growth and global competitiveness, considering that the permanence and contribution of older workers in the labor market affect not only the economic and social well- being of the workers themselves, but also the standard of living of current and future generations (Arnone, 2006).
Despite the declared need and desirability of retaining older workers in the workforce, the older, opposite trend of the decreasing participation of these people in organiza- tions (Hult amp; Stattin, 2009; Ranzijn, 2004; Roberts, 2006), may still often be observed. Companies continue to seek and hire young people, instead of exploiting the advantage of the older workersrsquo; knowledge (Homberg amp; Bui, 2013). Various authors and institutions have argued that it is neces- sary to encourage older workers to remain in the labor force and to contribute significantly to the organization as a strat- egy to reverse this trend (Armstrong-Stassen, 2008; Hedge, 2008). The European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (2006) calls the attention of governments to the need of encouraging older workers to continue working for as long as possible and also of employ- ers, as they need to retain and nurture their older workers. In this sense, managers must share a common vision about the most appropriate age structure for their organization as well as define and adopt policies and Human Resource Management practices to help them achieve this aim.
3. Human resource management and age management in organizations
In the uncertain and turbulent environment in which we live, it is crucial to protect and develop human resources, which are considered a strategic and unparalleled asset for cre- ating sustainable competitive advantages (Boxall amp; Purcell, 2003; Paauwe amp; Boselie, 2003). In addition, Human Resource Management has been recognized as a source of competitive advantage
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2.1老龄化人口
每个人都会变老,并且人口日益趋于老龄化。这是一个我们每天都会面对并且通常被认为是会对我们未来社会构成威胁的一个事实。在某种程度上,这种担忧是以社会的无力来适应社会、组织以及精神的发展(罗萨,2012)。老年人口的增长速度是最近人口趋势的最显著特征之一。许多国家正艰难应对不断变化的人口数据统计,主要原因是劳动力构成的不平衡以及劳动力技能短缺影响了人口发展水平(阿姆斯特朗 - 史塔生与施洛瑟,2011;阿姆斯特朗 - 史塔生,2008年沙尔克等,2010)。同时人口结构的转型也在影响着人口水平。不断下降的生育率和死亡率已经造成了前所未有的全球人口年龄结构的变化,这意味着超过一半(55%)的世界政府认为人口老龄化是本国所面临的一个重要问题(联合国,2013)。
欧洲国家中葡萄牙的情况是最清晰的,因为最新的人口普查显示了人口发展的两个主要方向:(1)年轻人的数量下降,(2)老年人的数量在不断增加(INE,2011)。老龄化指数显示,在每100个年轻人(0-14岁)中,老年人的数量(65岁以上)在1960年达到27%,2012年已经达到了129.4%,预计到2060年每100个年轻人中将有307的老年人(INE,2014;Pordata,2014)。因此,在2010年,葡萄牙预期的老年抚养比率为26.70%,2050年预计为55.62%(欧盟统计局,2014)。葡萄牙的人口统计数据表明,目前该国的人口呈现老龄化状态,导致出生率的下降和老年人数量的增加。这也许可以解释新生儿的负指数的情况。因此,现在我们所面临的人口结构的变化在不久的将来,会对劳动力的构成产生很大的影响。尽管国家之间存在着差异,但是大部分的国家都经历了由劳动力构成不平衡导致的人口结构的变化(Schalk et al.,2010; Winkelmaan-Gleed,2011年)。在这样的背景下,政府与企业(政府、非政府组织和政府间)不应该忽视老年人力资源。例如,欧盟已经将政府、社会合作伙伴和企业目标结合在一起,有效增加老年人口就业率以及为老年人提供就业技能,使他们既可以保持自己身体的健康,又可以提高老年人的就业能力。
2.2 老龄化的劳动力
人口老龄化意味着劳动力老化,可能会导致年轻人和老年员工之间的利益冲突。在接下来的几十年里,老年劳动力将为了促进经济增长被迫承担一个重要角色。Burke、Ng以及Ko ̧cak从世界经济全球化的本质和劳动力已经趋于老龄化这两方面入手,想要引起国家对老年人力资源的开发和利用的重视。此外,他们指出,这种情况可能在很长一段时间内都不会改变。老龄化社会面临许多的挑战和问题,如:经济、社会、政策和文化等。这些问题强调老龄化对国家生产力、生态经济增长和全球竞争力的影响,考虑到劳动力市场的持久性和老年劳动力的贡献,劳动力趋于老龄化的现状不仅影响了劳动者个人的经济和社会的福祉,也将会影响当前和未来几代人的生活标准(Arnone,2006)。
企业尽管宣称需要老年劳动力,但是老年劳动力的年龄过高,我们还是可以察觉到企业减少了老年劳动力的参与。企业不断寻求和雇佣年轻人,而不利用有知识优势的老年劳动力。大部分的作者和机构都认为,将鼓励老年劳动力参与到企业中作为一种商业策略来扭转这一趋势是非常有必要的。改善生活和工作条件欧洲基金会(2006年)呼吁各国政府,有必要在雇佣和培养老年劳动力时延长老年劳动力的工作年龄。从这个意义上讲,管理者必须制定出对企业最合适的年龄结构以及采取相关政策对企业人力资源进行管理,以帮助企业实现利用老年人力资源的这一目标。
3、组织中的人力资源管理和年龄管理
我们生活在不确定和动荡的环境中,人力资源管理已被公认为一种竞争优势的来源(Barney,1991)。在这个意义上,在面对市场全球化时,根据企业的需求来提高企业的竞争能力使人力资源管理也发生了深刻的变化(Lacombe和Tonelli,2001)。因此,经济变化突出了技术和财政资源的重要性,再加上劳动力的作用,以实现市场的成功和稳定。从旧经济的转变上来看,由体力工作为主,大规模生产的基础上,突出新经济的特点,知识密集型企业和网络化,强调了无形资产的重要性(boselie,2010)。人力资源管理实践是协助企业管理,进行行为指导,而且人力资源的绩效指导是实现组织目标的工具。有几项研究表明,这种管理对行为和绩效的影响。企业应该把时间和金钱投入到人力资源管理实践的发展上,帮助提升竞争力,促进员工的成长和实现企业对员工的承诺。研究数据表明人力资源应具有战略管理,而一些做法对提高企业绩效至关重要。
大多数的人力资源管理实践研究认为,这些实践是以同样的方式影响所有员工(Lepak和Snell,1999)。根据Hayton、Kelley (2006)以及Maison和Barrett (2006)的研究来说,人力资源管理实践是对组织绩效和公司绩效有积极的影响,即使这些做法是非正式的。最近,有些作者质疑这个观点,认为个人经验的不同会使人力资源管理所得出的实践结果不同,不同的劳动力群体并不以同样的方式回应这些做法(Kinnie, Hutchinson, Purcell, Rayton, amp; Swart, 2005)。然而,人力资源管理实践,在一般情况下,会对企业中不同年龄段人们的行为方式产生影响。可能在不久的将来,企业将不仅仅要应对老龄化工作还要应对企业员工年龄段的变化。这些变化将使人力资源管理的使用变得越来越重要,反过来,这是利用老年人力资源来弥补不断减少的年轻劳动力。从这个意义上来说,年龄管理方法可能会在企业中形成促进年龄多样性的有效机制(沃克,2005)。
许多雇主都意识到劳动力的缺乏与老龄化问题有关,但只有少数人采取行动来解决这些问题。为了说明这一点,作者提到了万宝盛华在2007年做出的一项研究,研究显示,在25个国家,超过28000名员工接受了采访,他们得出的结论是,只有21%的开发策略是为了留住老年员工。此外,明确表明不同年龄段员工的工作态度和工作目的可能有助于更好的推动企业制度的设立。Walker(2005)强调,人力资源管理的做法可能会使所有的劳动力获益,特别是老年员工,因为企业可能会鼓励他们留下来积极参与到工作中去。管理者根据自己的需要和要求,管理自己的员工,针对不同年龄段来进行量身定制的管理(James, McKechnie, amp; Swanberg, 2011)。企业所面临的挑战是解决老龄化,但要知道如何处理减少的劳动力和年龄增加的多样性问题也是同样重要的。
术语“年龄管理”具体指的企业人力资源管理的不同维度,同时将关注点放在老龄化问题上,而更普遍的情况是,老年劳动力通过公共政策对管理者进行讨价还价。“年龄管理的良好做法”被定义为打击年龄障碍,促进年龄的多样性并创造一个个人能够发挥他们的潜能,而不会被定义为年龄弱势群体的环境(沃克,2005年)。对于企业中有关于年龄管理的良好做法,卡西,梅特卡夫和莱基(1993)定义了五个主要方面:招聘和退出,培训、开发和推广灵活的工作方式,人体工程学和设计功能,以及改变对老年劳动力的态度。同时,Armstrong-Stassen(2008)确定了七个人力资源战略和具有代表性的人力资源实践。这些策略是:灵活的工作方式、工作设计、成熟的员工培训,个人培训,绩效考核,薪酬以及认可和尊重。然而,尊重和认可的策略是影响老年员工决定留在企业中的最具有决定性的因素。根据Walker(2005)的这些策略可以促进社会劳动力市场的公平与公正,这有助于团队异质性或互补性的经验和观点的交流,以及有助于老年劳动力和年轻劳动力之间技能和知识的传播。
迄今为止,大多数的研究都是为了了解为什么老年员工会离开他们的工作,而老年员工继续工作的因素却很少讨论。关于鼓励老年员工保持工作积极的研究数据很少(Shacklock, Fulops,amp;Hort, 2007),同样也没有相关的具体信息表明应该如何开发老年人力资源。Armstrong-Stassen(2008)指出,在一些文章和报告中显示,人力资源管理者对老年人力资源的研究报告的结果一直持质疑态度。作者一直强调老年劳动力需求的可用性,认为他们对企业的贡献是有价值的,因此鼓励老年劳动力留在企业(Armstrong- Stassen, 2008)。对于所有的这些原因,企业可以研究葡萄牙是如何建立考虑年龄因素的人力资源管理政策。在人力资源管理方面,考虑到人口、社会和生态以及经济效益都已发生变化,根据年龄金字塔来采取适当化的管理是非常有必要的。
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