教师资格和教学质量外文翻译资料

 2023-01-12 12:01

教师资格和教学质量

原文作者:Mary M. Kennedy Betsy J. Becker

单位:Michigan State University(密歇根州立大学)

很明显地,教师谁更具有胜任他们的工作的技能谁将进行更高质量的教学。事实上,师资和教学质量之间的关系一直是激烈争论的话题。提倡教师教育和国家执照系统认为,正式认可的机制可以改善教学质量。批评者认为无论是资历预测或保证教学质量都没有证据表明。下面的引用说明了这个问题:

超过200项研究表明,教师谁在他们的内容领域拥有更多的背景,谁拥有更多的教学和学习的知识将会在学生的领域,从幼儿教育到小学教育,从数学,科学到职业教育上都得到更高的高度评价,更成功。(文献:Darling-Hammond amp; McLaughlin, 1999, pp. 377-378).

hellip;hellip;我会下这样的结论:如果有的话,有很少用于支持教师的学科知识对学生学习的影响大的证据。(文献:Friedman, 2000, pp. 20).

一个好老师和一个坏老师之间的差异可以在一个完整的学年内实现 (文献:Hanushek, 1992, pp. 107).

在过去,或者说在将来都没有任何有说服力的证据可以说明,监管方法可以成功地提高教师素质。(文献:Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, 1999, pp. 1).

与传统观点相反,在其他条件相同的情况下,拥有紧急的教学证书的老师教导的数学和科学专业的学生做的并不比拥有标准的教学证书的老师教出来的数学和科学专业的学生差。 (文献:Goldhaber amp; Brewer, 1999, pp. 97).

上述引用的例子都显示,教师资格和教学质量的关系本应该是不言自明的关系却一点也不是不言自明。然而,国家却正越来越多地把教师资格作为提高教学质量的手段。甚至,在纽约市的公立学校被命令根据法律将那些没有教师资格证书的人从他们的岗位上驱赶。(文献:Goodenough and Kelley, 2000).

由于这些和那些为了提高教学质量的努力的方法增加,关于对教师资格和教学质量之间的关系的认知的需求增加了。我们建议进行教师资格和教学质量之间的关系的文献的全面综合。 这种综合是指包括但不限于文献,一个荟萃分析研究提供了大量关于教师资格的各项指标和教学质量的各个指标之间的关系强度的数据。

通过“教师资格”,我们的意思是官方的支持,认可或地位的象征,如大学本科学历,认证,许可证和一个类似的通常在进入一个行业前获得的证明。美国在教师开始时需要什么方面有很大的不同 (国家研究理事会,2000)。大多数这些身份的象征成为教师入职教学的要求,它们被认为是教师教学能力的认定,通常是专业知识或学科知识的指标。我们可以说在我们的合成中,不仅是已在使用中的指标,连有潜力在将来成为资格的指标也有。

“教学质量”这个术语的定义是一个比较棘手的问题。大多数一般的人都相信当他们看到教学质量的时候他们能够认识,尽管不同的人依赖于不同的标准。研究人员一直试图设计出更明确的定义,依靠直接的教学实践或者学生直接的评定去评估教学质量,但他们的标准也各不相同。教师评价体系往往将实践观察和学生学习评估作为教学质量的首要评估指标,但最近的系统,如专业教学标准全国委员会(NBPTS,2000年)和州际新教师评估和支持财团(首席州立学校官员委员会,2000年)等都加入了其他的标准。在我们合成中,我们建议设立包括教学质量的三个最突出的指标为:学生成绩,观察到的教学实践,以及教师关于他们做法的推理。

尽管界定这两个概念具有一定的挑战性,各级教育系统的政策制定者正越来越多地依赖于教师资格,以此来提高教学质量。例如,许多国家正在改变他们对教师入职的的学位要求,增加新的资格考试,用以认证人员已经达到要求 (Haney, Madaus, amp; Kreitzer, 1987; Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, 1999). 由于在这方面的政策活动有所增加,所以对师资和教学质量之间的关系的研究也相应有所增加。然而,这项研究中存在的各种形式和位置,以及过去的努力,以合成它没有得到充分地完整。 我们的合成将在四个重要的地方和其他的解释区分开来。

  1. 我们将会在我们的合成中包括各种教学质量的指标

一个使这个问题的研究变得具有具有挑战性问题是,很多在乎它的人对什么算作教学质量持不同的看法。 虽然许多人认为,学生的学习成果是教学质量的最终检验,但是其他的人要么认为现代对学生成绩的测试太有限,要么觉得教师帮助学生成长和发展是多方面的,而不仅仅是通过学科的主要收获。这些争议反映了价值判断的合法差异。研究合成只侧重于一种结局必然主要是吸引那些谁看重的是这样的结局的读者。

为了适应大量关于教学质量的定义,我们建议包括教学质量的多个指标在内。至少,我们将学生成绩,观察到的教学实践,以及教师关于他们做法的推理包括在内。我们工作的荟萃分析部分将侧重于比较不同种类的教师资格和教学质量的不同指标之间的关系的实力。

  1. 我们将在我们的合成里包括多个流派的研究

还有一个问题困扰着其他研究合成的是,对这个问题感兴趣的研究人员往往会陷入那些更多的被他们的研究方法的共性定义而不是他们解决问题的共性定义的阵营。每个阵营的研究者往往在很大程度上会相互影响,和其他研究者有相似的爱好,读取依赖于特定设计的调查研究,并了解其他团体进行的相关和重要的研究。因此当一个文献综述可能重点关注相关性研究 (e.g., Hanushek, 1986) 时而另一个聚焦于比较各组不同的凭据研究,(e.g., Greenberg, 1983) 第三种则是要集中在定性研究上 (e.g., Carter, 1990)。

这些不同的研究者阵营类似于众所周知的谚语“三个瞎子研究大象的不同部位,一个把它描述为树干,一个把它描述为绳索另一个把它描述为墙壁”而这取决于他们接触的是大象的哪个部位。研究者在一个特定类型中工作可能会制定错误或不完整的教师资格和教学质量之间的关系的模型,因为他们不熟悉其他类型的相关研究。

为了打击研究人员在不同的流派工作中孤立的问题,我们建议在我们的综合合成中研究多个不同流派。因为我们初步涉足这片领土,所以至少建议用三个不同的类型来解决这个问题,我们的合成就将包含以下三个类型:

(1)预测性研究通常检查各种教师资格和学生成就协会(这包括相关研究,多元回归研究,分层线性模型分析和其他各种方法来测量变量之间的关联);

(2)组对比研究,通常比较学生成绩分数或获得不同种类的证书的教师的观察实践(例如,具有文科学位的教师与那些在教师教育上取得学位的教师的对比;具有初级认证的教师与那些具有二次认证的教师的对比等。);

(3)定性研究通常只涉及一个或少数教师,通常仔细检查教师的专业或内容知识和观察教学实践之间的关系。

这三种研究的类型都是和教师资格如何与教学质量有关的问题直接相关的,但他们同时使用不同的教师资格和质量的指标。文学的实质性机构存在于每一个类型中。 (附件A提供了例证 - 不全面的 - 每一个类型的研究名单。) 然而,请注意,我们对这些类型的定义并不意味着排除这些设计中额外的变异。事实上,如果我们发现在我们继续调查的过程中研究需要依靠其他研究方法,我们将会把它们添加到我们的合成中。

  1. 我们将讨论自我选择和混杂变量的问题

另一个使教师资格和教学质量的关系一直难以澄清的原因是,几乎在教育系统的各个方面,从K-12教育到教师教育都是通过自我选择而复杂。 有些人选择上大学,而有些人选择不上大学,有些人选择报名参加教师教育计划,有些人选择不报名参加教师教育计划(Gitomer amp; Latham, 2000). 有些不报名参加教师教育,但决定以后教(Feistritzer, 1992). 那些选择教的同时还要选择将申请哪里的工作。反过来,区域寻求聘请那些将会融入当地社区的教师,并且他们使用适合当地的招聘标准和招聘策略 (Strauss, 1999). 大多数地区也会有政策,特别是特定的教师分配给特定的学校,这些政策确定了新手教师将在哪里获得他们最早的教学经验。孩子就读哪里的学校也参与自我选择的过程,为此他们的父母选择居住在那些特定的社区。

所以,当研究人员看师资和教学质量之间的关系,他们的研究结果经常是在没有观察到自我选择的过程的情况下让他们的推论变得复杂。与替代路线的毕业生相比较传统的教师教育课程的毕业生很容易混淆计划表面的影响,不同类型的人选择不同的方案报名参加并把它放在首位。自我选择是在这一领域的许多研究成果现成的替代假说。

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Teacher Qualifications and the Quality of Teaching

Mary M. Kennedy

Betsy J. Becker

Michigan State University

Though it should be self-evident that teachers who are more qualified for their work will engage in better-quality teaching, in fact the relationship between teacher qualifications and teaching quality is the subject of intense controversy. Advocates for teacher education and state licensure systems argue that official endorsement mechanisms lead to improvements in teaching quality. Critics see no evidence that qualifications either predict or ensure teaching quality. The following quotes illustrate the problem:

More than 200 studies have found that teachers who have more background in their content areas and have greater knowledge of teaching and learning are more highly rated and more successful with students in fields ranging from early childhood and elementary education to mathematics, science and vocational education (Darling-Hammond amp; McLaughlin, 1999, pp. 377-378).

. . . I would conclude, if anything, that there is little support for the impact of teachers subject matter knowledge on student learning (Friedman, 2000, pp. 20).

The difference between a good teacher and a bad teacher can be a full level of achievement in a single school year (Hanushek, 1992, pp. 107).

There is no persuasive evidence that the regulatory approach has succeeded in raising teacher quality in the past or that it will do so in the future (Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, 1999, pp. 1).

Contrary to conventional wisdom, mathematics and science students who have teachers with emergency credentials do no worse than students whose teachers have standard teaching credentials, all else being equal (Goldhaber amp; Brewer, 1999, pp. 97).

These quotes reveal that the relationship between teacher qualifications and teaching quality-a relationship that should be self-evident--is not self-evident at all. Yet states are increasingly relying on licensure as a means to improve teaching quality, and the New York City public schools are under court order to remove uncertified teachers from their poorest performing schools (Goodenough and Kelley, 2000).

As these and other efforts to improve teaching quality increase, the need for knowledge about the relationship between teacher qualifications and teaching quality also increases. We propose to conduct a comprehensive synthesis of the literature on the relationship between teacher qualifications and teaching quality. This synthesis will include, but not be limited to, a meta-analysis of studies that provide quantitative data on the strength of relationship between various indicators of teacher qualifications and various indicators of teaching quality.

By 'teacher qualifications,' we mean official endorsements, recognitions or status symbols such as college degrees, certifications, licenses and the like that one typically obtains prior to entering a profession. States vary widely in what is required of beginning teachers (National Research Council, 2000). Most of these status symbols become requirements for teaching when they are perceived to be indicators of teaching expertise, usually either professional knowledge or subject-matter knowledge. We propose to include in our synthesis not only the indicators already in use but also other indicators that have the potential to become qualifications in the future.

'Teaching quality' is a more difficult term to define. Most ordinary people believe they can recognize quality teaching when they see it, even though different people rely on different criteria. Researchers have tried to devise more explicit definitions and to rely on either direct observations of teaching practices or direct assessments of student learning to assess teaching quality, but their criteria also vary(1). Teacher evaluation systems have tended to rely on either observations of practice or assessments of student learning as their primary indicators of teaching quality, though recent systems such as the National Board of Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS, 2000) and the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2000) are now adding other standards as well. In our comprehensive synthesis, we propose to include the three most prominent indicators of teaching quality: student achievement, observed teaching practices, and teachers reasoning about their practices.

Despite the challenges of defining these two concepts, policy makers at all levels of the education system are increasingly relying on teacher qualifications as a way to improve teaching quality. For example, many states are altering their degree requirements for teaching, adding new licensing examinations to their certification requirements (Haney, Madaus, amp; Kreitzer, 1987; Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, 1999). As policy activity in this area has increased, so has research on the relationship between teacher qualifications and teaching quality. However, this research exists in a variety of forms and locations, and past efforts to synthesize it have not been sufficiently comprehensive. Our synthesis will differ from others in four important ways.

  1. We will include multiple indicators of teaching quality in our synthesis.

One problem that makes this question challenging to study is that people who care about it hold different views about what counts as teaching quality. While many have argued that student learning is the ultimate test of teaching quality, others counter either that contemporary tests of student achievement are too limited, or that teachers help students grow and develop in many ways, not just through the acquisition of subject matter. These disputes reflect legitimate differences in value judgem

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